2.5.8 Political history & cooperation
Description
This article is from the Nordic countries FAQ, by Antti Lahelma and Johan Olofsson, with numerous contributions by others.
2.5.8 Political history & cooperation
The forming of what we today know as the Nordic countries is a rather
complex historical process. This is also the reason why it's not a
very tight unit. While the common cultural heritage and even political
unions of the Nordic peoples go well beyond the Renaissance, a
conscious supra-national identity is a relatively recent development.
After the splitting up of the Kalmar Union in early 16th century,
Sweden (with Finland) and Denmark (with Norway) remained arch-enemies
for almost three hundred years, fighting each other for the dominance
of Scandinavia. Political cooperation was for the most part out of the
question.
In the learned circles of the late 18th century, however, a movement
known as Scandinavism started to spread with the growing realization
of national identity on one hand and common cultural heritage on the
other hand. At first this was limited to promoting cultural exchange,
but in the 1830s a political Scandinavism was born among the students
of Sweden and Denmark; it aimed to create a Nordic defense alliance
and even to unite the countries as a single state.
King Oskar I of Sweden, who was an enthusiastic Scandinavist,
supported Denmark when the country was subjected to strong political
pressure from Prussia in 1848-49, which increased the popularity of
Scandinavism in Denmark. During the Crimean War of 1853-56 efforts
were made to get Finns to embrace Scandinavism and Sweden planned to
liberate Finland from the yoke of the Russian Empire so that it could
rejoin the Scandinavian family, but at that time Finns were quite
content with their autonomy and didn't show much enthusiasm for
Scandinavism.
Political Scandinavism collapsed by and large in 1864 when Denmark was
attacked by Prussia and Austria. Although the reigning Swedish King
Karl XV was an advocate of Scandinavism, the Riksdag (the Swedish
parliament which had grown in power) had a more sceptical attitude,
and decided not to send any troops to aid the Danes. In addition to
this, the Norwegian independence movement started to cause tension
between Norwegians and Swedes.
Thus the dreams of a unified Scandinavia were abandoned, and
Scandinavism came to be focused on cultural and economic cooperation,
standardizing legislation and acting together in international
conferences. This cooperation has continued up to this date, although
the word "Scandinavism" itself is no longer used.
So, how then do the Nordic countries cooperate today?
The main Nordic cultural and political organs are the Norden-societies
in each country (founded in Swe/No/Dk in 1919, in Iceland in 1922,
Finland 1924, Faroes 1955, Åland 1970), their umbrella organization
(founded in 1965), the Nordic Minister Council (1971), and most
importantly the Nordic Council (1952/1956), through which free
movement of labour, passport-free travel and common legislation have
been introduced in the Nordic countries. A similar political profile
has led all the Nordic countries to develop into welfare states with a
high social security and a high standard of living.
Behind the political cooperation lie the factors that have enabled it
in the first place. These include common cultural background,
linguistic relationship, shared history, religion and geography. With
the exception of religion, none of them is fully shared by all five
countries, but even so, there are more things that unite us than ones
that separate us.
In 1946 Scandinavian Airlines Systems, SAS, was founded in cooperation
between the states of Denmark, Norway and Sweden.
I've heard the Scandinavian countries failed to agree on a union in the
1940s.
That's correct. Actually three times. First in October 1939 the Nordic
kings and presidents met to discuss the serious situation at the eve
of the World War. Soviet's demand on Finnish territory was one of the
main problems discussed, and the Finns must have hoped for guarantees
from the other states for support against the Russian threats. But the
result was the opposite. Each state declared its intention to follow a
strict policy of neutrality, which was the same as telling the Soviet
Union that none of the other Nordic countries would interfere in the
Soviet-Finnish conflict.
Then after the Winter War 1939-40 between the Soviet Union and Finland
a regular union was discussed for Sweden and Finland - like the
personal union 1814-1905 between Sweden and Norway. But the Soviet
Union didn't like the idea.
Finally after the second world war a defense alliance was planned
between Norway, Denmark and Sweden. (Finland's participation was again
vetoed by the Soviet Union.) But the Norwegians' bad impression of the
19th-century union with Sweden was the obstacle on which the idea
fell. Instead Norway took up discussions with the USA about
participation in the planned NATO, and soon also Denmark followed.
Was that for the first time after the split of the Kalmar-union?
Well, actually there was a Currency-union between Denmark, Norway and
Sweden 1873-1914 with the purpose to make trading easier. And people
who are careful with the notions would maybe object that the last
trace of the Kalmar-union lasted until 1944 when Iceland declared its
independence from Denmark. :->
But otherwise you are right. The personal union 1814-1905 between
Norway and Sweden was not at all voluntary from the side of the
Norwegians, and before that the idea of a Nordic union had been stone
dead since the 16th century.
How come the Kalmar-union was ever accepted?
It wasn't. :->>
It was the result of a long and complicated chain of coincidences:
* The Hanseatic League had become a superior power in the Baltic sea
region. Their strategy was always to support the second strongest
part in every conflict, thereby contributing to the political
instability.
* The first years of the 14th century were particularly unstable.
Norway's King Håkon Hålegg, who recently had gained superiority
over Iceland, supported the Swedish Duke Erik in an alliance
against Denmark and the Swedish King Birger.
* To make a long history short: Sweden was split in three Duchies;
King Birger imprisons the dukes when they visit him for a
Christmas party; the dukes are left to starve to death; the king
is chased out of the country; the Crown-Prince is executed; King
Håkon of Norway dies; and his grandson, the three years old son of
Duke Erik, is appointed King Magnus of Norway - and Sweden; his
mother rules as regent until she starts a war against Denmark;
then she gets disposed.
* While the Danish kingdom temporarily was weakened King Magnus
Eriksson ruled 1332-1355 over Finland and all of the Scandinavian
peninsula in a loose union between Norway, Sweden, Scania and
Gotland.
For its time it was the greatest realm in Europe.
[ Henrik Ernø writes: ]
During the period of 1315 to 1331 the Kings' power in Denmark was
steadily weakened by the powerful noble families, which successed
in limiting the King's position significantly both politically and
financially. The King compensated by borrowing money to raise his
armies from both the Hansa, the Counts of Holstein, the Kings of
Brandenburg, and anybody else. As surety for the loans various
parts of the kingdom were pawned out to the moneylenders, who then
often resold the rights of the pawned province to third parties.
[ Johan Olofsson writes: ]
The Scanian nobility (alternatively the Thing in Lund) had in the
beginning of the 1330s chosen the young Magnus Eriksson to be king
also for the Scanian provinces, as also Gotland had done, after his
regents had promised to pay Count Johan of Holstein to whom Scania
was pawned. At that time Magnus Eriksson was the under-age king of
both Norway and Sweden.
[ Jan Böhme replies: ]
It should be stressed that this was a much more drastic step to
take for the Scanians.
The Gutnish quite regularly pledged allegiance to the Swedish King
in the early Middle Ages, on the routine understanding that this
would mean as little as possible on the island in practice.
For the Scanians, it really implied a shift of allegiance.
Which means that Valdemar Atterdag's later re-conquest of Scania
only meant a restoration more or less to status quo ante, whereas
his conquest of Gotland meant an important change of the "facts on
the ground".
* When King Magnus' younger son Håkon comes to age, he is appointed
king of Norway despite Crown-Prince Erik being the rightful heir
to the throne. The discontent Crown-Prince starts a rebellion and
gets most of the realm, but soon he and all of his family die in
an epidemic disease. After this the balance had definitely
changed: Sweden was weakened and Denmark the strongest again.
* King Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark conquers Scania and Gotland,
King Magnus seeks support by the strong Hanseatic League but is
forced to abdicate in favor of his son Håkon (king of Norway), who
allies with the Danish king where-after the German Duke Albrecht
of Mecklenburg is appointed king of Sweden and imprisons the
ex-King Erik until six years later he is rescued by his son King
Håkon of Norway.
* In 1368-70 Valdemar Atterdag had gained courage enough to
challenge the Hanseatic League. Denmark tried to master the
southwestern Baltic and end the Hansa's economic control there.
But instead the League was united (the Cologne-federation) and
decided to raise an armed force that then defeated the Danes
decisively. The league then tried to dominate Denmark by means of
a 15 year's contracted possession of castles and towns along
Öresund.
* After Valdemar Atterdag's death his five years old grandson Olav
is elected King of Denmark - the alternative would have been the
nephew of King Albrecht supported by the German emperor. But the
emperor died. Olav's father was King Håkon of Norway, but the
Danish realm is in the hands of his mother, Queen Margrete of
Norway, the daughter of Valdemar Atterdag, who wasn't on speaking
terms with her husband the king.
* When King Håkon died his son Olav was still under age, only nine
years old, and the queen ruled over both Norway and Denmark. The
King Olav died however also (at the age of seventeen) and the
son-son of the Swedish King Albrecht of Mecklenburg was closest to
the throne.
* The Danish nobility did however prefer the Norwegian queen for the
German king and appointed her to regent with support of the Thing
in Lund. Then the Norwegians elected her to regent, and finally
the Swedish State Council and aristocracy chose to support her
against King Albrecht in Sweden, who was beaten in a battle with
Queen Margrete and together with his son Erik captured and
imprisoned. (1395 he was rescued through Mecklenburg's war against
the queen.)
* Finally Bugislav, the nephew of Queen Margrete, is elected king
(known as Erik of Pomerania) by the Norwegian state council with
the queen as regent until he comes to age; then he is elected king
in province after province of Denmark (1387) and so also by the
Swedish state council (1389). Thereby the union was made
legitimate, and in contrast to earlier occasions when one king
ruled over two Scandinavian countries, this came to last for a
long time. (Although the Swedes made a lot of problems all the
time.)
Is it true that Scandinavia was a united Norse Realm before Christianity?
Well, ...yes and no!
There existed short-lived kingdoms with considerable size also before
the 14th century, but they all disintegrated when the king in question
died - if not before. Maybe the army which was raised to defend
Jutland against the Huns was the first.
During the 11th century there are for instance King Canute the Great's
realm including most of England, Norway, maybe Sweden and (of course)
Denmark. But the first years of the millenium was rich in power-play:
* Olof Skötkonung, King of Svealand, allies with his step-father
Svend Fork-beard, King of Denmark, and the exiled Jarl Eirik from
Norway. [ "Jarl" is the same word as "Earl". ] They defeat King
Olav Tryggvason of Norway. Jarl Eirik gets a third of Norway as
his own, and the part of Olof Skötkonung's as his vassal. This
happened in year 1000 according to Snorre.
* Then the viking chieftain, King Olav Haraldsson defeats and slays
the son of Jarl Eirik, but unites with Eirik against King Olof of
Svealand. Unpease pesters the life in Jämtland and Bohuslän.
* According to Snorre (not too sure in other words) the leaders at
the Thing in Uppsala compelled King Olof to peace-negotiations
with King Olav.
* King Canute the Great (of Denmark) conquered also Norway. King
Olav escaped to his relative King Jaroslav in Novgorod, where he
raised an army. They landed in Sweden where meanwhile the
Svenonians (Svear) had lost their patience with the self-willed
King Olof Skötkonung, who had taken the unprcedented step of
conversion to Christianity. King Olof was expelled (and on his
escape given refuge in Skara in Götaland, where his confessor and
spiritual father proclaimed Sweden's first bishopric).
* The new King of Sweden, Amund Jakob, supports king Olav
Haraldsson, who however is killed in the battle of Stiklestad in
Trøndelag.
* When King Canute the Great dies in 1035 the Danish supremacy over
Norway is exchanged in a Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and
Mutual Assistance. It was settled that if one of the two realm's
kings should die without heirs, then the other would succeed him.
* King Hardeknud of Denmark dies without an heir in 1042, and
Denmark and Norway is again united - now under King Magnus.
* But soon a retired colonel from Constantinople, the uncle of King
Magnus, returned to his native country and made demands on half of
the kingdom. As King Magnus refused, the uncle, who came to be
called Harald Hårdråde by the way, allied with Svend Estridsøn, a
claimant to the Danish kingdom. King Magnus was defeated in the
year 1047, and the union between Denmark and Norway was split.
____________________________________________________
That's rather messy, isn't it?
Could you please make a table?
- At your service!
1022-35 King Canute the Great united Denmark, Norway and parts of
England.
1042-47 King Magnus of Norway inherits the Crown of Denmark.
1262-1536 Iceland is governed by Norway
1319-55 Personal union between Norway and Sweden
1332-60 Personal union between Sweden, Scania and Gotland
1362-64 Personal union between Norway and Sweden
1387-1536 Personal union between Denmark and Norway
1389-1523 Personal union between Denmark, Norway and Sweden
1536-1814 Norway is incorporated¹ in the Danish realm
1536-1918 Iceland is incorporated in the Danish realm
and 1918-1944 in personal union with Denmark
1536-- The Faroe islands are incorporated in the Danish realm
1814-1905 Personal union between Norway and Sweden ¹/ There remains
some dispute regarding if Norway regained sort of a status as
a kingdom again, in personal union with Denmark, in 1660.
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